Racially Biased Pretextual Traffic Stops Essays - Law Enforcement

Racially Biased Pretextual Traffic Stops The interviews excerpted here show that racially biased pretextual traffic stops have a strong and immediate impact on the individual African-American drivers involved. These stops are not the minor inconveniences they might seem to those who are not subjected to them. Rather, they are experiences that can wound the soul and cause psychological scar tissue to form. And the statistics show that these experiences are not simply disconnected anecdotes or exaggerated versions of personal experiences, but rather established and persistent patterns of law enforcement conduct. It may be that these stops do not spring from racism on the part of individual officers, or even from the official policies of the police departments for which they work. Nevertheless, the statistics leave little doubt that, whatever the source of this conduct by police, it has a disparate and degrading impact on blacks. But racial profiling is important not only because of the damage it does, but also because of the connections between stops of minority drivers and other, larger issues of criminal justice and race. Put another way, driving while black reflects, illustrates, and aggravates some of the most important problems we face today when we debate issues involving race, the police, the courts, punishment, crime control, criminal justice, and constitutional law. A. The Impact on the Innocent The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures, and specifies some of the requirements to be met in order to procure a warrant for a search. Since 1961--and earlier in the federal court system--the Supreme Court has required the exclusion of any evidence obtained through an unconstitutional search or seizure. From its inception, the exclusionary rule has inspired spirited criticism. Cardozo himself said that the criminal is to go free because the constable has blundered, capturing the idea that the bad guy, caught red handed, gets a tremendous windfall when he escapes punishment because of a mistake in the police officer's behavior. We need not even go all the way back to Cardozo to hear the argument that the exclusion of evidence protects--and rewards--only the guilty. The justification advanced for the exclusionary rule is that while the guilty may receive the most direct benefit when a court suppresses evidence because of a constitutional violation, the innocent--all the rest of us--are also better off. The right to be free from illegal searches and seizures belongs not just to the guilty, but to everyone. The guilty parties who bring motions to suppress are simply the most convenient vehicles for vindicating these rights, because they will have the incentive--escaping conviction--to litigate the issues. In so doing, the argument goes, the rights of all are vindicated, and police are deterred from violating constitutional rules on pain of failing to convict the guilty. One problem with this argument is that it takes imagination: the beneficiaries of suppressed evidence other than the guilty who escape punishment are ephemeral and amorphous. They are everybody--all of us. And if they are everybody, they quickly become nobody, because law-abiding, taxpaying citizens are unlikely to view ourselves as needing these constitutional protections. After all, we obey the law; we do not commit crimes. We can do without these protections--or so we think. It is not my intention here to recapitulate every argument for and against the exclusionary rule. Rather, I wish to point out a major difference between the usual Fourth Amendment cases and the most common driving while black cases. While police catch some criminals through the use of pretext stops, far more innocent people are likely to be affected by these practices than criminals. Indeed, the black community as a whole undoubtedly needs the protection of the police more than other segments of society because African- Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. Ironically, it is members of that same community who are likely to feel the consequences of pretextual stops and be treated like criminals. It is the reverse of the usual Fourth Amendment case, in that there is nothing ghostlike or indefinite about those whose rights would be vindicated by addressing these police practices. On the contrary, the victims are easy to identify because they are the great majority of black people who are subjected to these humiliating and difficult experiences but who have done absolutely nothing to deserve this treatment--except to resemble, in a literally skin-deep way, a small group of criminals. While whites who have done nothing wrong generally have little need to fear constitutional violations by the police, this is decidedly

The Political and Economic Organizations of Mycenae essays

The Political and Economic Organizations of Mycenae essays The first Greek-speaking, Indo-European tribes appeared in Greece about 1900 BCE, during the Middle Bronze Age. The first peoples were highly adaptive, ready to learn, eager to accept, adopt, and change their culture. It was only naturally that these outgoing, innovative people traveled and came in contact with the Minoan culture. Under Minoan influence these peoples developed into a new culture, the Mycenaean. The Mycenaeans were a different race altogether from the Minoans, and came into existence in Greece around 2000 B.C. The Mycenaean culture proved successful, becoming very powerful and very rich. Although the great civilization fell, it still thrived and flourished for an entire period. The mainland of the 15th century did not have any revolutionary developments in the political, economic or social sense. The political, economic and social systems thus had been moving toward the North Easts idea centralization. The population was growing, and foreign trade was booming. The purpose of my paper is to examine the political and social systems of Mycenae by means of closely examining their power bureaucracy, social systems, and their trade; both imports and exports. All information is gathered from the Tablets, archaeological evidence, Scholars theories, and Homer. First, I will address the political system of Mycenae. There is little evidence about the form and organization of the Mycenaean society. The Linear B tablets provide some information, but even that information is questionable and debated. Perseus is the traditional and mythological founder of Mycenae. The beginning of Mycenaes excellence began with the fall of Knossos. The world depicted by Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey can only partly be treated as historical evidence, but Homer still exhibits some clues and evidence for rebuilding a model of Mycenaes political system. By a combination of Homer, the Linear B tablets, and arc...